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By Category

Antimicrobial Resistance - bacteria have evolved powerful defenses against antibiotics (9)

Cancer - cells growing without controls (40)

Coronavirus - coronavirus structures and the search for a cure (7)

Diabetes - causes and cures (8)

Drug Action - antibiotics, therapeutics and their molecular targets (33)

Drugs and the Brain - molecules for mental health (12)

HIV and AIDS - the virus and how we fight it (8)

Immune System - our protection from infection (25)

Infectious Disease - fighting microbial dangers (12)

Peak Performance - the structural biology of athletics and well-being (37)

Toxins and Poisons - attacking essential molecular machinery (17)

Vaccines - exploring the molecular basis of vaccinations (15)

Viruses - cellular hijackers (29)

You and Your Health - the molecules that keep us alive (59)

Biological Energy - capturing and converting sources of power (32)

Biology of Plants - plant cells build molecular machines for photosynthesis, infrastructure and communication, and protection (25)

Bioluminescence and Fluorescence - proteins that shape light (3)

Cellular Signaling - sending and receiving molecular messages (57)

Central Dogma - transferring information from genes to proteins (13)

Enzymes - the cell's chemists (70)

Molecular Evolution - mechanisms for the rise of life on Earth (15)

Molecular Infrastructure - supporting cells, tissues and organisms (14)

Molecular Motors - directed motion at the molecular level (7)

Molecules for a Sustainable Future - proteins with global impact (13)

Nucleic Acids - storing genetic information and more (20)

Protein Synthesis - building the molecules of life (55)

Transport - delivering the cell's resources (23)

Biotechnology - using biology in industry (18)

Nanotechnology - building on nature (19)

Recombinant DNA - engineering custom proteins (5)

Renewable Energy - powering the world with biology (4)

Biomolecular Structural Biology - methods for determining atomic structures (12)

Biomolecules - the building blocks of life (14)

Integrative/Hybrid Methods - combining techniques to explore huge assemblies (10)

HIV Envelope Glycoprotein

	Amyloids September 2015 Alzheimer's disease and prion diseases are linked to unnatural aggregation of proteins into amyloid fibrils.
	Beta-galactosidase June 2016 Beta-galactosidase is a powerful tool for genetic engineering of bacteria
	Clathrin April 2007 Three-armed clathrin triskelions are used to build molecular cages involved in transport
	HIV Capsid July 2013 At the center of HIV, an unusual cone-shaped capsid protects the viral genome and delivers it into infected cells
	HIV Envelope Glycoprotein January 2014 Envelope protein attaches HIV to the cells that it infects and powers fusion of the virus with the cell membrane
	Microtubules July 2014 The largest filaments of the cytoskeleton provide tracks for transport throughout the cell
	Nuclear Pore Complex January 2017 The nuclear pore complex is the gateway between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
	Pilus Machine July 2017 A molecular machine with a rotary motor builds a long protein filament involved in bacterial motility and attachment.
	Proteasome October 2013 Proteasomes destroy damaged or obsolete proteins inside cells
	Vacuolar ATPase March 2018 Two linked molecular motors are used to pump protons across membranes.

Nobel Prizes and PDB structures - award-winning research (30)

PDB Data - understanding the information stored in the PDB archive (1)

Protein Structure Prediction, Design, and Computed Structure Models - the PDB archive made protein structure prediction and protein design possible (3)

	Aminoglycoside Antibiotics February 2012 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria build enzymes that destroy drugs like streptomycin
	Aminoglycoside Antibiotics and Resistance October 2018 Bacteria become resistant to aminoglycosides by destroying them or changing their target.
	Dihydrofolate Reductase October 2002 DHFR is a target for cancer chemotherapy and bacterial infection
	Multidrug Resistance Transporters November 2007 Many bacteria use multidrug resistance transporters to pump drugs and poisons out of the cell
	New Delhi Metallo-Beta-Lactamase July 2015 Antibiotics can save lives, but antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria pose a dangerous threat
	Penicillin-binding Proteins May 2002 Penicillin attacks the proteins that build bacterial cell walls
	Ribosome January 2010 Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins
	Tetrahydrobiopterin Biosynthesis August 2015 Tetrahydrobiopterin plays an essential role in the production of aromatic amino acids, neurotransmitters and nitric oxide.
	Vancomycin December 2015 The antibiotic vancomycin blocks the construction of bacterial cell walls.

	Actinomycin April 2013 Some antibiotics attack cells by intercalating between the bases in a DNA double helix
	Anaphase-Promoting Complex / Cyclosome March 2023 APC/C guards the checkpoints that regulate key steps in the cell cycle
	Apoptosomes September 2014 Apoptosomes make life or death decisions in cells
	ATM and ATR Kinases August 2023 Dividing cells use ATM and ATR kinases to respond to DNA damage.
	c-Abl Protein Kinase and Imatinib July 2023 Protein kinases are being targeted by new anti-cancer drugs
	Caspases August 2004 Caspases disassemble proteins during the process of programmed cell death
	Chimeric Antigen Receptors October 2017 T cells may be engineered with chimeric antigen receptors to attack cancer cells.
	Cisplatin and DNA March 2021 Cisplatin treats cancer by causing damage to the DNA of cancer cells.
	Cyclin and Cyclin-dependent Kinase August 2019 Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases control when cells divide, making them important targets for cancer therapy.
	Dihydrofolate Reductase October 2002 DHFR is a target for cancer chemotherapy and bacterial infection
	Epidermal Growth Factor June 2010 EGF is part of a family of proteins that controls aspects of cell growth and development
	Estrogen Receptor September 2003 Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development
	Glutathione Transferases August 2017 Glutathione transferase tags toxic molecules, making them easy to recognize and remove.
	Hepatitis C Virus Protease/Helicase December 2020 Structures of hepatitis C viral proteins have led to the discovery of direct-acting antivirals.
	HER2/neu and Trastuzumab April 2022 Trastuzumab monoclonal antibodies targeting HER2 receptors are at the forefront of breast cancer treatment
	Histone Deacetylases September 2023 Histone deacetylases regulate access to genetic information by modifying histones
	Hsp90 December 2008 Heat shock proteins ensure that proteins remain folded and active under harsh conditions
	Human Papillomavirus and Vaccines May 2018 The capsid protein of papillomavirus is used in vaccines that prevent cervical cancer.
	Initiation Factor eIF4E February 2019 Initiation factors for protein synthesis interact through disordered chains.
	Major Histocompatibility Complex February 2005 MHC displays peptides on the surfaces of cells, allowing the immune system to sense the infection inside
	MDM2 and Cancer June 2019 MDM2 controls the action of p53 tumor suppressor, making it a target for cancer chemotherapy.
	Microtubules July 2014 The largest filaments of the cytoskeleton provide tracks for transport throughout the cell
	Nanodiscs and HDL September 2019 Nanodiscs conveniently package a small piece of membrane for experimental studies.
	Nicotine, Cancer, and Addiction May 2022 Nicotine causes addiction by interacting with receptors in the brain
	Non-Homologous End Joining Supercomplexes July 2022 Lethal double-strand breaks in the DNA genome are repaired by NHEJ
	p53 Tumor Suppressor July 2002 p53 tumor suppressor protects the body from DNA damage and cancer
	PD-1 (Programmed Cell Death Protein 1) December 2016 PD-1 and its ligands are a new target for cancer therapy
	Pyruvate Kinase M2 June 2022 Pyruvate kinases are the paradoxical gatekeepers for cancer cell metabolism and growth.
	RAF Protein Kinases March 2016 A single mutation in a RAF protein kinase can help transform a normal cell into a cancer cell.
	Ras Protein April 2012 Mutation of the growth-controlling ras protein can lead to cancer
	RecA and Rad51 April 2014 Broken DNA strands may be repaired by matching sequences in a duplicate copy of the DNA
	Ribonucleotide Reductase October 2019 Ribonucleotide reductase creates the building blocks of DNA
	Simian Virus 40 November 2003 SV40 hijacks the cells it infects using only a handful of proteins
	Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) February 2008 Our cells continually look for pieces of double-stranded RNA, a possible sign of viral infection
	Spliceosomes May 2020 Cryoelectron microscropy is revealing how spliceosomes cut-and-paste messenger RNA molecules.
	Src Tyrosine Kinase July 2003 Growth signaling proteins play an important role in the development of cancer
	Telomerase November 2018 Telomerase maintains the ends of our chromosomes.
	Thymine Dimers July 2007 Ultraviolet light damages our DNA, but our cells have ways to correct the damage
	Topoisomerases January 2006 Topoisomerases untangle and reduce the tension of DNA strands in the cell
	Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VegF) and Angiogenesis March 2022 VegF promotes blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), affecting cancer proliferation, wound healing, and other bodily processes.

	Coronavirus Proteases February 2020 Coronavirus proteases are attractive targets for the design of antiviral drugs.
	Glucocorticoid Receptor and Dexamethasone June 2021 An anti-inflammatory drug has given us a new way to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.
	SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid and Home Tests February 2023 Home test kits for SARS-CoV-2 test for the presence of nucleocapsid, the protein that packages the viral genome in infectious virions.
	SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase September 2020 Coronaviruses duplicate their RNA genome using a specialized polymerase
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike June 2020 Coronavirus spike protein binds to receptors on cell surfaces, and is a target for vaccine development.
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Antibodies April 2021 Structural biologists are revealing the many ways that antibodies recognize SARS-CoV-2
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike Variants December 2021 SARS-CoV-2 is constantly changing, posing new challenges during the COVID19 pandemic

	Designer Insulins February 2016 Engineered insulins have been developed to improve treatment of diabetes
	Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 October 2016 Inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 are used to treat type-2 diabetes
	Glucagon April 2015 Glucagon triggers the release of glucose into the blood, to power cells throughout the body
	Glucose Oxidase May 2006 Glucose oxidase measures blood glucose level in biosensors
	Glucose Transporters April 2017 Glucose transporters deliver glucose molecules one-by-one across cell membranes.
	Insulin February 2001 The hormone insulin helps control the level of glucose in the blood
	Insulin Receptor February 2015 The cellular receptor for insulin helps control the utilization of glucose by cells
	Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products June 2015 RAGE recognizes sugar-modified proteins, contributing to an inflammatory response that plays a role in diabetes

	Actinomycin April 2013 Some antibiotics attack cells by intercalating between the bases in a DNA double helix
	Adrenergic Receptors April 2008 Adrenaline stimulates a G-protein-coupled receptor, priming us for action
	Aminoglycoside Antibiotics February 2012 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria build enzymes that destroy drugs like streptomycin
	Aminoglycoside Antibiotics and Resistance October 2018 Bacteria become resistant to aminoglycosides by destroying them or changing their target.
	Anaphase-Promoting Complex / Cyclosome March 2023 APC/C guards the checkpoints that regulate key steps in the cell cycle
	Beta-secretase July 2009 Beta-secretase trims proteins in the cell and plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease
	Circadian Clock Proteins January 2008 Circadian clock proteins measure time in our cells
	Click Chemistry December 2022 A modular approach to chemistry simplifies the construction of complex protein-targeting molecules.
	Cyclooxygenase May 2001 Aspirin attacks an important enzyme in pain signaling and blood clotting
	Cytochrome p450 October 2006 Cytochrome p450 detoxifies and solubilizes drugs and poisons by modifying them with oxygen
	Dihydrofolate Reductase October 2002 DHFR is a target for cancer chemotherapy and bacterial infection
	Estrogen Receptor September 2003 Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development
	Glucocorticoid Receptor and Dexamethasone June 2021 An anti-inflammatory drug has given us a new way to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.
	Glutamate-gated Chloride Receptors November 2015 The antibiotic ivermectin attacks glutamate-gated chloride channels, paralyzing parasitic worms.
	Glutathione Transferases August 2017 Glutathione transferase tags toxic molecules, making them easy to recognize and remove.
	Histone Deacetylases September 2023 Histone deacetylases regulate access to genetic information by modifying histones
	HIV Envelope Glycoprotein January 2014 Envelope protein attaches HIV to the cells that it infects and powers fusion of the virus with the cell membrane
	Influenza Neuraminidase May 2009 Neuraminidase is an important target for influenza drugs
	Integrase March 2011 HIV integrase allows HIV to insert itself into the genome of an infected cell
	Interferons August 2010 Interferons mobilize defenses against viral infection
	Lactate Dehydrogenase June 2008 Our cells temporarily build lactate when supplies of oxygen are low
	Microtubules July 2014 The largest filaments of the cytoskeleton provide tracks for transport throughout the cell
	Multidrug Resistance Transporters November 2007 Many bacteria use multidrug resistance transporters to pump drugs and poisons out of the cell
	Neurotransmitter Transporters March 2014 Neurotransmitters are transported out of nerve synapses to end a signal transmission
	New Delhi Metallo-Beta-Lactamase July 2015 Antibiotics can save lives, but antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria pose a dangerous threat
	Nitric Oxide Synthase January 2011 Nitric oxide gas is used as a rapid-acting hormone and as a powerful defense
	Opioid Receptors January 2018 Morphine and other opioid drugs bind to receptors in the nervous system, controlling pain
	P-glycoprotein March 2010 P-glycoprotein pumps toxic molecules out of our cells
	Penicillin-binding Proteins May 2002 Penicillin attacks the proteins that build bacterial cell walls
	Ribosome January 2010 Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins
	Serotonin Receptor August 2013 Serotonin receptors control mood, emotion, and many other behaviors, and are targets for many important drugs
	Tetrahydrobiopterin Biosynthesis August 2015 Tetrahydrobiopterin plays an essential role in the production of aromatic amino acids, neurotransmitters and nitric oxide.
	Vancomycin December 2015 The antibiotic vancomycin blocks the construction of bacterial cell walls.

	Acetylcholine Receptor November 2005 The neurotransmitter acetylcholine opens a protein channel, stimulating muscle contraction
	Acetylcholinesterase June 2004 Acetylcholinesterase stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell
	Adrenergic Receptors April 2008 Adrenaline stimulates a G-protein-coupled receptor, priming us for action
	AMPA Receptor July 2019 Receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate in our brain come in several shapes and sizes.
	Calcium Pump March 2004 Atomic structures have captured the calcium pump in action
	Capsaicin Receptor TRPV1 October 2020 TRPV1 is an ion channel that senses heat and contributes to pain sensation.
	G Proteins October 2004 G proteins receive signals from cellular receptors and deliver them inside the cell
	Myelin-associated Glycoprotein July 2020 Nerve axons are insulated and protected by a sheath of myelin
	Opioid Receptors January 2018 Morphine and other opioid drugs bind to receptors in the nervous system, controlling pain
	Piezo1 Mechanosensitive Channel July 2018 Mechanosensitive ion channels give our cells a sense of touch.
	Sodium-Potassium Pump October 2009 Cells continually pump sodium ions out and potassium ions in, powered by ATP
	Voltage-gated Sodium Channels March 2020 Voltage-gated sodium channels transmit signals in a wave through the nervous system.

	Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies February 2014 Structural studies of broadly neutralizing antibodies are paving the way to vaccines for HIV, influenza and RSV
	Cascade and CRISPR January 2015 Cascade and CRISPR help bacteria remember how to fight viral infection
	HIV Capsid July 2013 At the center of HIV, an unusual cone-shaped capsid protects the viral genome and delivers it into infected cells
	HIV Envelope Glycoprotein January 2014 Envelope protein attaches HIV to the cells that it infects and powers fusion of the virus with the cell membrane
	HIV Reverse Transcriptase September 2002 HIV builds a DNA copy of its RNA genome, providing a unique target for drug therapy
	HIV-1 Protease June 2000 Atomic structures of HIV protease have been used to design powerful drugs for HIV therapy
	Integrase March 2011 HIV integrase allows HIV to insert itself into the genome of an infected cell
	T-Cell Receptor March 2005 Lymphocytes use T-cell receptors to patrol the body for foreign molecules

	Antibodies September 2001 Antibodies search for foreign molecules in the blood
	Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies February 2014 Structural studies of broadly neutralizing antibodies are paving the way to vaccines for HIV, influenza and RSV
	Chimeric Antigen Receptors October 2017 T cells may be engineered with chimeric antigen receptors to attack cancer cells.
	Dermcidin June 2013 Small toxic peptides help protect us from bacterial infection
	Ebola Virus Proteins October 2014 Structures of ebola virus proteins are giving new hope for fighting this deadly virus
	Hemagglutinin April 2006 Influenza virus binds to cells and infects them using hemagglutinin
	Influenza Neuraminidase May 2009 Neuraminidase is an important target for influenza drugs
	Interferons August 2010 Interferons mobilize defenses against viral infection
	Legumain August 2018 Legumain cleaves proteins, and can also put them back together.
	Lysozyme September 2000 Lysozyme attacks the cell walls of bacteria
	Major Histocompatibility Complex February 2005 MHC displays peptides on the surfaces of cells, allowing the immune system to sense the infection inside
	Measles Virus Proteins March 2019 Six proteins in measles virus work together to infect cells.
	MHC I Peptide Loading Complex April 2023 Several steps of quality control optimize the peptides that are displayed by MHC I.
	Nanobodies April 2011 Unusual antibodies from camels are useful in research and medicine
	PD-1 (Programmed Cell Death Protein 1) December 2016 PD-1 and its ligands are a new target for cancer therapy
	RSV Fusion Glycoprotein October 2023 Structures of the fusion glycoprotein from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) were used to engineer effective vaccines to fight viral infection.
	SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid and Home Tests February 2023 Home test kits for SARS-CoV-2 test for the presence of nucleocapsid, the protein that packages the viral genome in infectious virions.
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Antibodies April 2021 Structural biologists are revealing the many ways that antibodies recognize SARS-CoV-2
	Secretory Antibodies August 2022 Secretory immunoglobulins are our most abundant antibodies, providing a first line of defense against pathogens.
	Siderocalin January 2016 Our innate immune system starves bacteria of iron using siderocalin.
	Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) February 2008 Our cells continually look for pieces of double-stranded RNA, a possible sign of viral infection
	T-Cell Receptor March 2005 Lymphocytes use T-cell receptors to patrol the body for foreign molecules
	Tissue Transglutaminase and Celiac Disease May 2017 Tissue transglutaminase staples proteins together by forming a chemical crosslink.
	Toll-like Receptors November 2011 Toll-like receptors warn us about bacterial and viral infection
	ZAR1 Resistosome November 2023 Plants protect themselves from infection with immune system machines such as the resistosome

	Aminoglycoside Antibiotics February 2012 Antibiotic-resistant bacteria build enzymes that destroy drugs like streptomycin
	Aminoglycoside Antibiotics and Resistance October 2018 Bacteria become resistant to aminoglycosides by destroying them or changing their target.
	Anthrax Toxin April 2002 Anthrax bacteria build a deadly three-part toxin
	Cholera Toxin September 2005 Many bacterial toxins have two parts: one that finds a cell, the other that kills it
	Circadian Clock Proteins January 2008 Circadian clock proteins measure time in our cells
	Injectisome June 2024 Salmonella bacteria inject a cocktail of effector proteins into cells to disable their defenses.
	Malaria Parasite PTEX November 2024 The parasite that causes malaria exports hundreds of proteins to remodel the cells that it infects.
	New Delhi Metallo-Beta-Lactamase July 2015 Antibiotics can save lives, but antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria pose a dangerous threat
	Penicillin-binding Proteins May 2002 Penicillin attacks the proteins that build bacterial cell walls
	Pilus Machine July 2017 A molecular machine with a rotary motor builds a long protein filament involved in bacterial motility and attachment.
	Toll-like Receptors November 2011 Toll-like receptors warn us about bacterial and viral infection
	Vancomycin December 2015 The antibiotic vancomycin blocks the construction of bacterial cell walls.

	Acetohydroxyacid Synthase November 2021 In plants, AHAS performs the first step in synthesis of three essential amino acids, making it an effective target for herbicides.
	Adrenergic Receptors April 2008 Adrenaline stimulates a G-protein-coupled receptor, priming us for action
	Alcohol Dehydrogenase January 2001 Alcohol dehydrogenase detoxifies the ethanol we drink
	Anabolic Steroids August 2007 Anabolic steroids like testosterone are among the most common performance enhancing drugs
	Angiotensin and Blood Pressure October 2024 Many medications for controlling high blood pressure inhibit the action of the peptide hormone angiotensin.
	ATP Synthase December 2005 ATP synthase links two rotary motors to generate ATP
	Calcium Pump March 2004 Atomic structures have captured the calcium pump in action
	Carbonic Anhydrase January 2004 Carbonic anhydrase solubilizes carbon dioxide gas so we can breathe it out
	Catalase September 2004 Catalase protects us from dangerous reactive oxidizing molecules
	Circadian Clock Proteins January 2008 Circadian clock proteins measure time in our cells
	Citric Acid Cycle October 2012 Eight enzymes form a cyclic pathway for energy production and biosynthesis
	Complex I December 2011 A proton-pumping protein complex performs the first step of the respiratory electron transport chain
	Cytochrome c Oxidase May 2000 Cytochrome oxidase extracts energy from food using oxygen
	Estrogen Receptor September 2003 Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development
	Fatty Acid Synthase June 2007 Fatty acids are constructed in many sequential steps by a large protein complex
	Glycogen Phosphorylase December 2001 Glycogen phosphorylase releases sugar from its cellular storehouse
	Glycolytic Enzymes February 2004 The ten enzymes of glycolysis break down sugar in our diet
	Growth Hormone April 2004 Growth hormone brings together two copies of its cellular receptor
	Hemoglobin May 2003 Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport
	Hypoxia-Inducible Factors December 2019 HIF-α is a molecular switch that responds to changing oxygen levels.
	Lactate Dehydrogenase June 2008 Our cells temporarily build lactate when supplies of oxygen are low
	Lead Poisoning April 2016 Lead ions poison proteins throughout the body, blocking their normal function.
	Leptin May 2012 Problems with the appetite-controlling hormone leptin can lead to obesity
	Monellin July 2016 Monellin and other supersweet proteins trick our taste receptors.
	Myosin June 2001 Molecular motors fueled by ATP power the contraction of muscles
	Nicotine, Cancer, and Addiction May 2022 Nicotine causes addiction by interacting with receptors in the brain
	Odorant Receptors June 2023 Our sense of smell relies on odorant receptors that recognize specific scents.
	Opioid Receptors January 2018 Morphine and other opioid drugs bind to receptors in the nervous system, controlling pain
	Oxidosqualene Cyclase December 2007 Oxidosqualine cyclase forms the unusual fused rings of cholesterol molecules
	Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex September 2012 A huge molecular complex links three sequential reactions for energy production
	Respiratory Supercomplex September 2022 In our mitochondria, three electron-transport complexes assemble into a supercomplex.
	Rhodopsin March 2012 In our eyes, rhodopsin uses the molecule retinal to see light
	S-Nitrosylated Hemoglobin May 2019 Nitric oxide is attached to a conserved cysteine in hemoglobin and then released to control the flow of blood.
	Serotonin Receptor August 2013 Serotonin receptors control mood, emotion, and many other behaviors, and are targets for many important drugs
	Superoxide Dismutase October 2007 Superoxide dismutase protects us from dangerously reactive forms of oxygen
	Vitamin D Receptor November 2012 Vitamin D helps regulate the use of calcium throughout the body
	Vitamins December 2023 Vitamins are essential molecular tools that are obtained through a healthy diet.

	Acetylcholine Receptor November 2005 The neurotransmitter acetylcholine opens a protein channel, stimulating muscle contraction
	Acetylcholinesterase June 2004 Acetylcholinesterase stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell
	Actin July 2001 Cells are supported by a cytoskeleton of protein filaments
	Anthrax Toxin April 2002 Anthrax bacteria build a deadly three-part toxin
	Aquaporin May 2014 Aquaporins create a channel for water molecules to cross through cell membranes
	Cholera Toxin September 2005 Many bacterial toxins have two parts: one that finds a cell, the other that kills it
	Cytochrome p450 October 2006 Cytochrome p450 detoxifies and solubilizes drugs and poisons by modifying them with oxygen
	G Proteins October 2004 G proteins receive signals from cellular receptors and deliver them inside the cell
	Glutathione Transferases August 2017 Glutathione transferase tags toxic molecules, making them easy to recognize and remove.
	Hemoglobin May 2003 Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport
	Lead Poisoning April 2016 Lead ions poison proteins throughout the body, blocking their normal function.
	Phospholipase A2 November 2019 Phospholipase A2 breaks membrane lipids, forming molecules that contribute to inflammation and pain signaling.
	Potassium Channels February 2003 Potassium channels allow potassium ions to pass, but block smaller sodium ions
	Ricin May 2013 The structure of ricin reveals how it kills cells and how vaccines can produce immunity against ricin poisoning
	RNA Polymerase April 2003 RNA polymerase transcribes genetic information from DNA into RNA
	Sodium-Potassium Pump October 2009 Cells continually pump sodium ions out and potassium ions in, powered by ATP
	Topoisomerases January 2006 Topoisomerases untangle and reduce the tension of DNA strands in the cell

	Adenovirus December 2010 Adenovirus has an icosahedral capsid with unusual cell-binding fibers
	Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies February 2014 Structural studies of broadly neutralizing antibodies are paving the way to vaccines for HIV, influenza and RSV
	Dengue Virus July 2008 Atomic structures of dengue virus are giving new hope for creation of a vaccine
	Fifty Years of Open Access to PDB Structures October 2021 The Protein Data Bank is celebrating its golden anniversary!
	HIV Envelope Glycoprotein January 2014 Envelope protein attaches HIV to the cells that it infects and powers fusion of the virus with the cell membrane
	HIV-1 Protease June 2000 Atomic structures of HIV protease have been used to design powerful drugs for HIV therapy
	Human Papillomavirus and Vaccines May 2018 The capsid protein of papillomavirus is used in vaccines that prevent cervical cancer.
	Influenza Neuraminidase May 2009 Neuraminidase is an important target for influenza drugs
	Measles Virus Proteins March 2019 Six proteins in measles virus work together to infect cells.
	Parvoviruses May 2010 Viruses that cause distemper are surrounded by an icosahedral capsid
	Poliovirus and Rhinovirus August 2001 Crystallographic structures reveal the atomic details of viruses and how to fight them
	Ricin May 2013 The structure of ricin reveals how it kills cells and how vaccines can produce immunity against ricin poisoning
	RSV Fusion Glycoprotein October 2023 Structures of the fusion glycoprotein from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) were used to engineer effective vaccines to fight viral infection.
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike June 2020 Coronavirus spike protein binds to receptors on cell surfaces, and is a target for vaccine development.
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Antibodies April 2021 Structural biologists are revealing the many ways that antibodies recognize SARS-CoV-2

	Adenovirus December 2010 Adenovirus has an icosahedral capsid with unusual cell-binding fibers
	Bacteriophage phiX174 February 2000 Bacteriophage phiX174 hijacks bacterial cells and forces them to make new copies of the virus
	Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies February 2014 Structural studies of broadly neutralizing antibodies are paving the way to vaccines for HIV, influenza and RSV
	Coronavirus Proteases February 2020 Coronavirus proteases are attractive targets for the design of antiviral drugs.
	Dengue Virus July 2008 Atomic structures of dengue virus are giving new hope for creation of a vaccine
	Ebola Virus Proteins October 2014 Structures of ebola virus proteins are giving new hope for fighting this deadly virus
	Glucocorticoid Receptor and Dexamethasone June 2021 An anti-inflammatory drug has given us a new way to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.
	Hemagglutinin April 2006 Influenza virus binds to cells and infects them using hemagglutinin
	Hepatitis C Virus Protease/Helicase December 2020 Structures of hepatitis C viral proteins have led to the discovery of direct-acting antivirals.
	HIV Capsid July 2013 At the center of HIV, an unusual cone-shaped capsid protects the viral genome and delivers it into infected cells
	HIV Envelope Glycoprotein January 2014 Envelope protein attaches HIV to the cells that it infects and powers fusion of the virus with the cell membrane
	HIV Reverse Transcriptase September 2002 HIV builds a DNA copy of its RNA genome, providing a unique target for drug therapy
	Human Papillomavirus and Vaccines May 2018 The capsid protein of papillomavirus is used in vaccines that prevent cervical cancer.
	Influenza Neuraminidase May 2009 Neuraminidase is an important target for influenza drugs
	Integrase March 2011 HIV integrase allows HIV to insert itself into the genome of an infected cell
	Measles Virus Proteins March 2019 Six proteins in measles virus work together to infect cells.
	Parvoviruses May 2010 Viruses that cause distemper are surrounded by an icosahedral capsid
	Poliovirus and Rhinovirus August 2001 Crystallographic structures reveal the atomic details of viruses and how to fight them
	Quasisymmetry in Icosahedral Viruses August 2016 Viruses use quasisymmetry to build large capsids out of many small subunits
	RSV Fusion Glycoprotein October 2023 Structures of the fusion glycoprotein from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) were used to engineer effective vaccines to fight viral infection.
	SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid and Home Tests February 2023 Home test kits for SARS-CoV-2 test for the presence of nucleocapsid, the protein that packages the viral genome in infectious virions.
	SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase September 2020 Coronaviruses duplicate their RNA genome using a specialized polymerase
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike June 2020 Coronavirus spike protein binds to receptors on cell surfaces, and is a target for vaccine development.
	SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Antibodies April 2021 Structural biologists are revealing the many ways that antibodies recognize SARS-CoV-2
	Simian Virus 40 November 2003 SV40 hijacks the cells it infects using only a handful of proteins
	Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) February 2008 Our cells continually look for pieces of double-stranded RNA, a possible sign of viral infection
	Tobacco Mosaic Virus January 2009 A cylindrical arrangement of proteins protects a long strand of RNA in TMV
	YES Complex April 2024 Bacteriophage phiX174 makes a small protein that kills bacterial cells.
	Zika Virus May 2016 Cryo-electron microscopy reveals the structure of Zika virus

	ABO Blood Type Glycosyltransferases December 2012 ABO blood types are determined by an enzyme that attaches sugars to proteins
	Acetylcholinesterase June 2004 Acetylcholinesterase stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell
	Alcohol Dehydrogenase January 2001 Alcohol dehydrogenase detoxifies the ethanol we drink
	Amyloid-beta Precursor Protein July 2006 Cell-clogging amyloids form when proteins improperly aggregate
	Amyloids September 2015 Alzheimer's disease and prion diseases are linked to unnatural aggregation of proteins into amyloid fibrils.
	Anabolic Steroids August 2007 Anabolic steroids like testosterone are among the most common performance enhancing drugs
	Angiotensin and Blood Pressure October 2024 Many medications for controlling high blood pressure inhibit the action of the peptide hormone angiotensin.
	Apoptosomes September 2014 Apoptosomes make life or death decisions in cells
	Beta-secretase July 2009 Beta-secretase trims proteins in the cell and plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease
	Calcium Pump March 2004 Atomic structures have captured the calcium pump in action
	Carbonic Anhydrase January 2004 Carbonic anhydrase solubilizes carbon dioxide gas so we can breathe it out
	Carotenoid Oxygenase June 2005 Light-sensing retinal molecules are built from colorful carotenoids in our diet
	Caspases August 2004 Caspases disassemble proteins during the process of programmed cell death
	Catalase September 2004 Catalase protects us from dangerous reactive oxidizing molecules
	CFTR and Cystic Fibrosis May 2024 Cystic fibrosis is currently treated using drugs that enhance the function of mutated CFTR
	Circadian Clock Proteins January 2008 Circadian clock proteins measure time in our cells
	Collagen April 2000 Sturdy fibers of collagen give structure to our bodies
	Crystallins July 2010 A concentrated solution of crystallins refracts light in our eye lens
	Cytochrome p450 October 2006 Cytochrome p450 detoxifies and solubilizes drugs and poisons by modifying them with oxygen
	DNA Methyltransferases July 2011 Cells add methyl groups to their DNA to encode additional epigenetic information
	Estrogen Receptor September 2003 Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development
	Fetal Hemoglobin May 2021 Fetal hemoglobin allows a growing fetus to receive oxygen from their mother.
	Fibrin November 2006 Rod-shaped fibrin molecules link together to form blood clots
	Glucansucrase June 2011 Bacteria adhere to our teeth by building sticky sugar chains
	Growth Hormone April 2004 Growth hormone brings together two copies of its cellular receptor
	Hemoglobin May 2003 Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport
	Hyaluronidases March 2024 Long carbohydrate chains are used to make our bodies flexible and resilient.
	Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) July 2012 Cells salvage and recycle their obsolete DNA and RNA
	Hypoxia-Inducible Factors December 2019 HIF-α is a molecular switch that responds to changing oxygen levels.
	Insulin February 2001 The hormone insulin helps control the level of glucose in the blood
	Leptin May 2012 Problems with the appetite-controlling hormone leptin can lead to obesity
	Lysozyme September 2000 Lysozyme attacks the cell walls of bacteria
	Major Histocompatibility Complex February 2005 MHC displays peptides on the surfaces of cells, allowing the immune system to sense the infection inside
	Neurotrophins August 2005 Neurotrophins guide the development of the nervous system
	Nicotine, Cancer, and Addiction May 2022 Nicotine causes addiction by interacting with receptors in the brain
	Opioid Receptors January 2018 Morphine and other opioid drugs bind to receptors in the nervous system, controlling pain
	Oxidosqualene Cyclase December 2007 Oxidosqualine cyclase forms the unusual fused rings of cholesterol molecules
	Pepsin December 2000 Pepsin digests proteins in strong stomach acid
	Phenylalanine Hydroxylase January 2005 An unusual cofactor is used in the synthesis of aromatic amino acids
	Phospholipase A2 November 2019 Phospholipase A2 breaks membrane lipids, forming molecules that contribute to inflammation and pain signaling.
	Piezo1 Mechanosensitive Channel July 2018 Mechanosensitive ion channels give our cells a sense of touch.
	Prions May 2008 Mad cow disease is caused by prion proteins that misfold and aggregate
	Proton-Gated Urea Channel February 2013 A channel that passes urea allows ulcer-producing bacteria to live in the stomach
	S-Nitrosylated Hemoglobin May 2019 Nitric oxide is attached to a conserved cysteine in hemoglobin and then released to control the flow of blood.
	SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid and Home Tests February 2023 Home test kits for SARS-CoV-2 test for the presence of nucleocapsid, the protein that packages the viral genome in infectious virions.
	Selenocysteine Synthase August 2008 Selenium is used in place of sulfur to build proteins for special tasks
	Serotonin Receptor August 2013 Serotonin receptors control mood, emotion, and many other behaviors, and are targets for many important drugs
	Serpins May 2004 Serpins are traps that capture dangerous proteases
	Serum Albumin January 2003 Serum albumin delivers fatty acid molecules through the bloodstream
	Sirtuins September 2017 Sirtuin activation is being explored as a way to slow aging.
	Superoxide Dismutase October 2007 Superoxide dismutase protects us from dangerously reactive forms of oxygen
	T-Cell Receptor March 2005 Lymphocytes use T-cell receptors to patrol the body for foreign molecules
	Tetrahydrobiopterin Biosynthesis August 2015 Tetrahydrobiopterin plays an essential role in the production of aromatic amino acids, neurotransmitters and nitric oxide.
	Thrombin January 2002 Thrombin activates the molecule that forms blood clots
	Tissue Factor March 2006 Tissue factor senses damage to the body and triggers formation of a blood clot
	Tissue Transglutaminase and Celiac Disease May 2017 Tissue transglutaminase staples proteins together by forming a chemical crosslink.
	Vitamin D Receptor November 2012 Vitamin D helps regulate the use of calcium throughout the body
	Vitamins December 2023 Vitamins are essential molecular tools that are obtained through a healthy diet.
	Xanthine Oxidoreductase September 2009 Xanthine oxidoreductase helps break down obsolete purine nucleotides

	Aconitase and Iron Regulatory Protein 1 May 2007 Aconitase performs a reaction in the citric acid cycle, and moonlights as a regulatory protein
	Alcohol Dehydrogenase January 2001 Alcohol dehydrogenase detoxifies the ethanol we drink
	Alpha-amylase February 2006 Amylases digest starch to produce glucose
	ATP Synthase December 2005 ATP synthase links two rotary motors to generate ATP
	Bacteriorhodopsin March 2002 Bacteriorhodopsin pumps protons powered by green sunlight
	Beta-galactosidase June 2016 Beta-galactosidase is a powerful tool for genetic engineering of bacteria
	Biodegradable Plastic December 2017 Bacteria build biodegradable plastic that could be better for the environment
	Cellulases and Bioenergy May 2023 Powerful fungal enzymes break down cellulose during industrial production of ethanol from plant material.
	Citrate Synthase September 2007 Citrate synthase opens and closes around its substrates as part of the citric acid cycle
	Citric Acid Cycle October 2012 Eight enzymes form a cyclic pathway for energy production and biosynthesis
	Complex I December 2011 A proton-pumping protein complex performs the first step of the respiratory electron transport chain
	Cytochrome bc1 May 2011 A flow of electrons powers proton pumps in cellular respiration and photosynthesis
	Cytochrome c December 2002 Cytochrome c shuttles electrons during the production of cellular energy
	Cytochrome c Oxidase May 2000 Cytochrome oxidase extracts energy from food using oxygen
	Fatty Acid Synthase June 2007 Fatty acids are constructed in many sequential steps by a large protein complex
	GFP-like Proteins June 2014 GFP-like proteins found in nature or engineered in the laboratory now span every color of the rainbow
	Glycogen Phosphorylase December 2001 Glycogen phosphorylase releases sugar from its cellular storehouse
	Glycolytic Enzymes February 2004 The ten enzymes of glycolysis break down sugar in our diet
	Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) June 2003 A tiny fluorescent protein from jellyfish has revolutionized cell biology
	Hypoxia-Inducible Factors December 2019 HIF-α is a molecular switch that responds to changing oxygen levels.
	Isocitrate Dehydrogenase September 2010 Atomic structures have revealed the catalytic steps of a citric acid cycle enzyme
	Lactate Dehydrogenase June 2008 Our cells temporarily build lactate when supplies of oxygen are low
	Luciferase June 2006 Organisms from fireflies to bacteria use luciferase to emit light
	Myoglobin January 2000 Myoglobin was the first protein to have its atomic structure determined, revealing how it stores oxygen in muscle cells.
	Photosynthetic Supercomplexes April 2020 Light is captured by huge supercomplexes of photosystems and antenna systems.
	Photosystem I October 2001 Photosystem I captures the energy in sunlight
	Phototropin March 2015 Phototrophins sense the level of blue light, allowing plants to respond to changing environmental conditions
	Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex September 2012 A huge molecular complex links three sequential reactions for energy production
	Pyruvate Kinase M2 June 2022 Pyruvate kinases are the paradoxical gatekeepers for cancer cell metabolism and growth.
	Respiratory Supercomplex September 2022 In our mitochondria, three electron-transport complexes assemble into a supercomplex.
	Rhodopsin March 2012 In our eyes, rhodopsin uses the molecule retinal to see light
	Trypsin October 2003 An activated serine amino acid in trypsin cleaves protein chains

	Acetohydroxyacid Synthase November 2021 In plants, AHAS performs the first step in synthesis of three essential amino acids, making it an effective target for herbicides.
	Auxin and TIR1 Ubiquitin Ligase February 2009 The plant hormone auxin controls growth and response to light and gravity
	Bacteriorhodopsin March 2002 Bacteriorhodopsin pumps protons powered by green sunlight
	Carbon Capture Mechanisms September 2024 Scientists are studying cyanobacteria to improve the productivity of agricultural crops
	Carbonic Anhydrase January 2004 Carbonic anhydrase solubilizes carbon dioxide gas so we can breathe it out
	Carotenoid Oxygenase June 2005 Light-sensing retinal molecules are built from colorful carotenoids in our diet
	Cellulose Synthase February 2021 Plants build tough cellulose strands one sugar at a time.
	Concanavalin A and Circular Permutation April 2010 For some proteins, clipped and reassembled sequences can produce the same 3D shape
	Cytochrome bc1 May 2011 A flow of electrons powers proton pumps in cellular respiration and photosynthesis
	EPSP Synthase and Weedkillers February 2018 The weedkiller Roundup attacks a key enzyme involved in the construction of aromatic compounds.
	Fatty Acid Synthase June 2007 Fatty acids are constructed in many sequential steps by a large protein complex
	Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) June 2003 A tiny fluorescent protein from jellyfish has revolutionized cell biology
	Isoprene Synthase September 2016 Plants release a billion metric tons of isoprene and other organic gases every year.
	Monellin July 2016 Monellin and other supersweet proteins trick our taste receptors.
	Nitrogenase February 2002 Nitrogenase uses an exotic cluster of metals to fix atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable ammonia
	Photosynthetic Supercomplexes April 2020 Light is captured by huge supercomplexes of photosystems and antenna systems.
	Photosystem I October 2001 Photosystem I captures the energy in sunlight
	Photosystem II November 2004 Photosystem II captures the energy from sunlight and uses it to extract electrons from water molecules
	Phototropin March 2015 Phototrophins sense the level of blue light, allowing plants to respond to changing environmental conditions
	Phytohormone Receptor DWARF14 October 2022 Some phytohormones mobilize the cell’s protein degradation machinery to regulate plant growth and development.
	Phytosulfokine Receptor August 2020 Phytosulfokine and other small peptides deliver signals about growth and development in plants.
	Ricin May 2013 The structure of ricin reveals how it kills cells and how vaccines can produce immunity against ricin poisoning
	Rubisco November 2000 Rubisco fixes atmospheric carbon dioxide into bioavailable sugar molecules
	TAL Effectors December 2014 TAL-effectors are modular, DNA-reading proteins that can be used to edit DNA in living cells
	ZAR1 Resistosome November 2023 Plants protect themselves from infection with immune system machines such as the resistosome

	Acetylcholine Receptor November 2005 The neurotransmitter acetylcholine opens a protein channel, stimulating muscle contraction
	Acetylcholinesterase June 2004 Acetylcholinesterase stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell
	Adenylyl Cyclase November 2020 Adenylyl cyclase creates second messengers to amplify signals from G-protein coupled receptors
	Adrenergic Receptors April 2008 Adrenaline stimulates a G-protein-coupled receptor, priming us for action
	AMPA Receptor July 2019 Receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate in our brain come in several shapes and sizes.
	Anabolic Steroids August 2007 Anabolic steroids like testosterone are among the most common performance enhancing drugs
	Anaphase-Promoting Complex / Cyclosome March 2023 APC/C guards the checkpoints that regulate key steps in the cell cycle
	Angiotensin and Blood Pressure October 2024 Many medications for controlling high blood pressure inhibit the action of the peptide hormone angiotensin.
	ATM and ATR Kinases August 2023 Dividing cells use ATM and ATR kinases to respond to DNA damage.
	Auxin and TIR1 Ubiquitin Ligase February 2009 The plant hormone auxin controls growth and response to light and gravity
	c-Abl Protein Kinase and Imatinib July 2023 Protein kinases are being targeted by new anti-cancer drugs
	Calcium Pump March 2004 Atomic structures have captured the calcium pump in action
	Calmodulin August 2003 Calcium ions rapidly deliver signals to control processes such as muscle contraction, nerve signaling, and fertilization
	cAMP-dependent Protein Kinase (PKA) August 2012 PKA delivers cellular signals by adding phosphates to proteins
	Capsaicin Receptor TRPV1 October 2020 TRPV1 is an ion channel that senses heat and contributes to pain sensation.
	Cyclin and Cyclin-dependent Kinase August 2019 Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases control when cells divide, making them important targets for cancer therapy.
	Cyclooxygenase May 2001 Aspirin attacks an important enzyme in pain signaling and blood clotting
	Designer Insulins February 2016 Engineered insulins have been developed to improve treatment of diabetes
	Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 October 2016 Inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 are used to treat type-2 diabetes
	Epidermal Growth Factor June 2010 EGF is part of a family of proteins that controls aspects of cell growth and development
	Estrogen Receptor September 2003 Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development
	G Proteins October 2004 G proteins receive signals from cellular receptors and deliver them inside the cell
	Glucagon April 2015 Glucagon triggers the release of glucose into the blood, to power cells throughout the body
	Glucocorticoid Receptor and Dexamethasone June 2021 An anti-inflammatory drug has given us a new way to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.
	Glutamate-gated Chloride Receptors November 2015 The antibiotic ivermectin attacks glutamate-gated chloride channels, paralyzing parasitic worms.
	Growth Hormone April 2004 Growth hormone brings together two copies of its cellular receptor
	HER2/neu and Trastuzumab April 2022 Trastuzumab monoclonal antibodies targeting HER2 receptors are at the forefront of breast cancer treatment
	Insulin February 2001 The hormone insulin helps control the level of glucose in the blood
	Insulin Receptor February 2015 The cellular receptor for insulin helps control the utilization of glucose by cells
	Interferons August 2010 Interferons mobilize defenses against viral infection
	Leptin May 2012 Problems with the appetite-controlling hormone leptin can lead to obesity
	Mechanosensitive Channels November 2008 Pressure-sensitive channels open when the internal pressure of a cell gets too high
	Neurotransmitter Transporters March 2014 Neurotransmitters are transported out of nerve synapses to end a signal transmission
	Neurotrophins August 2005 Neurotrophins guide the development of the nervous system
	Nicotine, Cancer, and Addiction May 2022 Nicotine causes addiction by interacting with receptors in the brain
	Nitric Oxide Synthase January 2011 Nitric oxide gas is used as a rapid-acting hormone and as a powerful defense
	Odorant Receptors June 2023 Our sense of smell relies on odorant receptors that recognize specific scents.
	Opioid Receptors January 2018 Morphine and other opioid drugs bind to receptors in the nervous system, controlling pain
	PD-1 (Programmed Cell Death Protein 1) December 2016 PD-1 and its ligands are a new target for cancer therapy
	Photoactive Yellow Protein March 2017 Researchers use synchrotrons and X-ray lasers to reveal the rapid processes of light sensing.
	Phototropin March 2015 Phototrophins sense the level of blue light, allowing plants to respond to changing environmental conditions
	Phytohormone Receptor DWARF14 October 2022 Some phytohormones mobilize the cell’s protein degradation machinery to regulate plant growth and development.
	Phytosulfokine Receptor August 2020 Phytosulfokine and other small peptides deliver signals about growth and development in plants.
	Piezo1 Mechanosensitive Channel July 2018 Mechanosensitive ion channels give our cells a sense of touch.
	Potassium Channels February 2003 Potassium channels allow potassium ions to pass, but block smaller sodium ions
	RAF Protein Kinases March 2016 A single mutation in a RAF protein kinase can help transform a normal cell into a cancer cell.
	Ras Protein April 2012 Mutation of the growth-controlling ras protein can lead to cancer
	Receptor for Advanced Glycation End Products June 2015 RAGE recognizes sugar-modified proteins, contributing to an inflammatory response that plays a role in diabetes
	Rhodopsin March 2012 In our eyes, rhodopsin uses the molecule retinal to see light
	Serotonin Receptor August 2013 Serotonin receptors control mood, emotion, and many other behaviors, and are targets for many important drugs
	SNARE Proteins November 2013 SNARE proteins power the fusion of vesicles with membranes by forming a bundle of alpha helices
	Src Tyrosine Kinase July 2003 Growth signaling proteins play an important role in the development of cancer
	Tissue Factor March 2006 Tissue factor senses damage to the body and triggers formation of a blood clot
	Two-component Systems October 2015 Bacteria respond to their environment with two-component sensing systems.
	Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VegF) and Angiogenesis March 2022 VegF promotes blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), affecting cancer proliferation, wound healing, and other bodily processes.
	Vitamin D Receptor November 2012 Vitamin D helps regulate the use of calcium throughout the body
	Voltage-gated Sodium Channels March 2020 Voltage-gated sodium channels transmit signals in a wave through the nervous system.

	Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases April 2001 Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases ensure that the proper amino acids are used to build proteins
	Cisplatin and DNA March 2021 Cisplatin treats cancer by causing damage to the DNA of cancer cells.
	DNA November 2001 Atomic structures reveal how the iconic double helix encodes genomic information
	DNA Polymerase March 2000 DNA polymerase makes an accurate copy of the cell's genome
	Expressome January 2021 In bacteria, ribosomes start building proteins as messenger RNA is being transcribed
	Histone Deacetylases September 2023 Histone deacetylases regulate access to genetic information by modifying histones
	Mediator January 2024 Mediator integrates regulatory information to decide when genes need to be transcribed.
	Non-Homologous End Joining Supercomplexes July 2022 Lethal double-strand breaks in the DNA genome are repaired by NHEJ
	Ribosome January 2010 Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins
	RNA Polymerase April 2003 RNA polymerase transcribes genetic information from DNA into RNA
	SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase September 2020 Coronaviruses duplicate their RNA genome using a specialized polymerase
	Spliceosomes May 2020 Cryoelectron microscropy is revealing how spliceosomes cut-and-paste messenger RNA molecules.
	Transfer RNA March 2001 Transfer RNA translates the language of the genome into the language of proteins

	AAA+ Proteases August 2006 AAA+ proteases are ATP-powered molecular motors that thread protein chains through a hole
	ABO Blood Type Glycosyltransferases December 2012 ABO blood types are determined by an enzyme that attaches sugars to proteins
	Acetohydroxyacid Synthase November 2021 In plants, AHAS performs the first step in synthesis of three essential amino acids, making it an effective target for herbicides.
	Acetylcholinesterase June 2004 Acetylcholinesterase stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell
	Aconitase and Iron Regulatory Protein 1 May 2007 Aconitase performs a reaction in the citric acid cycle, and moonlights as a regulatory protein
	Alcohol Dehydrogenase January 2001 Alcohol dehydrogenase detoxifies the ethanol we drink
	Alpha-amylase February 2006 Amylases digest starch to produce glucose
	Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases April 2001 Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases ensure that the proper amino acids are used to build proteins
	Anabolic Steroids August 2007 Anabolic steroids like testosterone are among the most common performance enhancing drugs
	Aspartate Transcarbamoylase November 2017 Key biosynthetic enzymes are regulated by their ultimate products through allosteric motions.
	Beta-galactosidase June 2016 Beta-galactosidase is a powerful tool for genetic engineering of bacteria
	Beta-secretase July 2009 Beta-secretase trims proteins in the cell and plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease
	cAMP-dependent Protein Kinase (PKA) August 2012 PKA delivers cellular signals by adding phosphates to proteins
	Carbonic Anhydrase January 2004 Carbonic anhydrase solubilizes carbon dioxide gas so we can breathe it out
	Carotenoid Oxygenase June 2005 Light-sensing retinal molecules are built from colorful carotenoids in our diet
	Caspases August 2004 Caspases disassemble proteins during the process of programmed cell death
	Catalase September 2004 Catalase protects us from dangerous reactive oxidizing molecules
	Citrate Synthase September 2007 Citrate synthase opens and closes around its substrates as part of the citric acid cycle
	Citric Acid Cycle October 2012 Eight enzymes form a cyclic pathway for energy production and biosynthesis
	Cyclooxygenase May 2001 Aspirin attacks an important enzyme in pain signaling and blood clotting
	Cytochrome p450 October 2006 Cytochrome p450 detoxifies and solubilizes drugs and poisons by modifying them with oxygen
	Dehalogenases April 2018 Bacteria destroy toxic environmental pollutants that include chlorine or bromine atoms.
	Dihydrofolate Reductase October 2002 DHFR is a target for cancer chemotherapy and bacterial infection
	DNA Ligase July 2004 DNA ligase reconnects broken DNA strands, and is used to engineer recombinant DNA
	EPSP Synthase and Weedkillers February 2018 The weedkiller Roundup attacks a key enzyme involved in the construction of aromatic compounds.
	Exosomes February 2007 Exosomes destroy messenger RNA molecules after they have finished their jobs
	Fatty Acid Synthase June 2007 Fatty acids are constructed in many sequential steps by a large protein complex
	Glucansucrase June 2011 Bacteria adhere to our teeth by building sticky sugar chains
	Glucose Oxidase May 2006 Glucose oxidase measures blood glucose level in biosensors
	Glutamine Synthetase June 2002 Glutamine synthetase monitors the levels of nitrogen-rich amino acids and decides when to make more
	Glycogen Phosphorylase December 2001 Glycogen phosphorylase releases sugar from its cellular storehouse
	Glycolytic Enzymes February 2004 The ten enzymes of glycolysis break down sugar in our diet
	HIV Reverse Transcriptase September 2002 HIV builds a DNA copy of its RNA genome, providing a unique target for drug therapy
	Hydrogenase March 2009 Hydrogenases use unusual metal ions to split hydrogen gas
	Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) July 2012 Cells salvage and recycle their obsolete DNA and RNA
	Isocitrate Dehydrogenase September 2010 Atomic structures have revealed the catalytic steps of a citric acid cycle enzyme
	Lactate Dehydrogenase June 2008 Our cells temporarily build lactate when supplies of oxygen are low
	Legumain August 2018 Legumain cleaves proteins, and can also put them back together.
	Luciferase June 2006 Organisms from fireflies to bacteria use luciferase to emit light
	Lysozyme September 2000 Lysozyme attacks the cell walls of bacteria
	Methyl-coenzyme M Reductase November 2014 Methanogens use sophisticated molecular tools to build methane
	New Delhi Metallo-Beta-Lactamase July 2015 Antibiotics can save lives, but antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria pose a dangerous threat
	Nitrogenase February 2002 Nitrogenase uses an exotic cluster of metals to fix atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable ammonia
	O-GlcNAc Transferase September 2011 Some protein functions are regulated when sugars are attached
	Oxidosqualene Cyclase December 2007 Oxidosqualine cyclase forms the unusual fused rings of cholesterol molecules
	Pepsin December 2000 Pepsin digests proteins in strong stomach acid
	Phenylalanine Hydroxylase January 2005 An unusual cofactor is used in the synthesis of aromatic amino acids
	Phytase September 2018 Phytase is used in agriculture to mobilize indigestible phosphate compounds in livestock feed.
	Poly(A) Polymerase October 2008 Poly(A) polymerase adds a long tail of adenine nucleotides at the end of messenger RNA
	Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex September 2012 A huge molecular complex links three sequential reactions for energy production
	Restriction Enzymes August 2000 Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA are useful tools for genetic engineering
	Rhomboid Protease GlpG August 2011 Some proteases cut proteins embedded in cell membranes
	Ribonuclease A September 2008 Ribonuclease cuts and controls RNA
	Ribonucleotide Reductase October 2019 Ribonucleotide reductase creates the building blocks of DNA
	Ribosome January 2010 Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins
	RNA Polymerase April 2003 RNA polymerase transcribes genetic information from DNA into RNA
	Rubisco November 2000 Rubisco fixes atmospheric carbon dioxide into bioavailable sugar molecules
	Selenocysteine Synthase August 2008 Selenium is used in place of sulfur to build proteins for special tasks
	Self-splicing RNA May 2005 Special sequences of RNA are able to splice themselves
	Src Tyrosine Kinase July 2003 Growth signaling proteins play an important role in the development of cancer
	Sulfotransferases August 2009 Sulfotransferases transfer sulfuryl groups in enzymatic reactions
	Superoxide Dismutase October 2007 Superoxide dismutase protects us from dangerously reactive forms of oxygen
	Tetrahydrobiopterin Biosynthesis August 2015 Tetrahydrobiopterin plays an essential role in the production of aromatic amino acids, neurotransmitters and nitric oxide.
	Thrombin January 2002 Thrombin activates the molecule that forms blood clots
	Thymine Dimers July 2007 Ultraviolet light damages our DNA, but our cells have ways to correct the damage
	Tissue Transglutaminase and Celiac Disease May 2017 Tissue transglutaminase staples proteins together by forming a chemical crosslink.
	Topoisomerases January 2006 Topoisomerases untangle and reduce the tension of DNA strands in the cell
	Transposase December 2006 Transposases shift genes around in the genome
	Trypsin October 2003 An activated serine amino acid in trypsin cleaves protein chains
	Xanthine Oxidoreductase September 2009 Xanthine oxidoreductase helps break down obsolete purine nucleotides

	Antifreeze Proteins December 2009 Small antifreeze proteins protect cells from damage by ice
	Concanavalin A and Circular Permutation April 2010 For some proteins, clipped and reassembled sequences can produce the same 3D shape
	Cytochrome c December 2002 Cytochrome c shuttles electrons during the production of cellular energy
	Cytochrome c Oxidase May 2000 Cytochrome oxidase extracts energy from food using oxygen
	Dihydrofolate Reductase October 2002 DHFR is a target for cancer chemotherapy and bacterial infection
	Directed Evolution of Enzymes December 2018 Biological evolution is being harnessed in the lab to create new enzymes.
	Globin Evolution February 2017 The mechanisms of molecular evolution are revealed in globin sequences and structures.
	Luciferase June 2006 Organisms from fireflies to bacteria use luciferase to emit light
	Parvoviruses May 2010 Viruses that cause distemper are surrounded by an icosahedral capsid
	Penicillin-binding Proteins May 2002 Penicillin attacks the proteins that build bacterial cell walls
	Ribosome January 2010 Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins
	Ribosome Diversity July 2024 By comparing the structures of ribosomes from different organisms, we can explore the evolution of life.
	Transposase December 2006 Transposases shift genes around in the genome
	Vancomycin December 2015 The antibiotic vancomycin blocks the construction of bacterial cell walls.
	Vitamin D Receptor November 2012 Vitamin D helps regulate the use of calcium throughout the body

	Actin July 2001 Cells are supported by a cytoskeleton of protein filaments
	Actin Branching by Arp2/3 Complex November 2022 By mimicking actin, Arp2/3 complex helps build a complex cytoskeleton that supports and shapes cells.
	Cadherin March 2008 Adhesive cadherin proteins hold neighboring cells together
	Cellulose Synthase February 2021 Plants build tough cellulose strands one sugar at a time.
	Collagen April 2000 Sturdy fibers of collagen give structure to our bodies
	ESCRT-III August 2024 ESCRT-III forms helical assemblies that remodel cellular membranes
	Hyaluronidases March 2024 Long carbohydrate chains are used to make our bodies flexible and resilient.
	Integrin February 2011 Integrins forge flexible linkages between the infrastructure inside and outside of cells
	Microtubules July 2014 The largest filaments of the cytoskeleton provide tracks for transport throughout the cell
	Pilus Machine July 2017 A molecular machine with a rotary motor builds a long protein filament involved in bacterial motility and attachment.
	Proteins and Biominerals April 2019 Small biomineral crystals are used to build bone, eggshells and even tiny compasses.
	Tissue Transglutaminase and Celiac Disease May 2017 Tissue transglutaminase staples proteins together by forming a chemical crosslink.
	Titin May 2015 The giant protein titin organizes the structure of muscle and gives them elasticity
	Vaults June 2009 Cells build huge vault containers constructed of a symmetric arrangement of many subunits

	ATP Synthase December 2005 ATP synthase links two rotary motors to generate ATP
	Dynein August 2014 The motor protein dynein transports cellular cargo along microtubules
	Flagellar Motor December 2024 Bidirectional motors power the swimming of many bacterial cells.
	Kinesin April 2005 The motor protein kinesin carries cellular cargo along microtubules
	Myosin June 2001 Molecular motors fueled by ATP power the contraction of muscles
	Pilus Machine July 2017 A molecular machine with a rotary motor builds a long protein filament involved in bacterial motility and attachment.
	Vacuolar ATPase March 2018 Two linked molecular motors are used to pump protons across membranes.

	Adenine Riboswitch in Action June 2017 XFEL serial crystallography reveals what happens when adenine binds to a riboswitch
	ATM and ATR Kinases August 2023 Dividing cells use ATM and ATR kinases to respond to DNA damage.
	Designed DNA Crystal November 2009 Small pieces of DNA have been engineered to form a nanoscale lattice
	DNA November 2001 Atomic structures reveal how the iconic double helix encodes genomic information
	Fluorescent RNA Aptamers January 2019 RNA aptamers are being engineered to track molecules inside living cells
	Nucleosome July 2000 The cell's genome is stored and protected by nucleosomes
	RecA and Rad51 April 2014 Broken DNA strands may be repaired by matching sequences in a duplicate copy of the DNA
	Restriction Enzymes August 2000 Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA are useful tools for genetic engineering
	Ribonuclease P August 2021 The ribozyme ribonuclease P cleaves pre-tRNA to form functional tRNA.
	Ribosomal Subunits October 2000 Atomic structures of the ribosomal subunits reveal a central role for RNA in protein synthesis
	Ribosome January 2010 Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins
	Riboswitches October 2010 Special sequences of messenger RNA can bind to regulatory molecules and affect synthesis of proteins
	Self-splicing RNA May 2005 Special sequences of RNA are able to splice themselves
	Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) February 2008 Our cells continually look for pieces of double-stranded RNA, a possible sign of viral infection
	Spliceosomes May 2020 Cryoelectron microscropy is revealing how spliceosomes cut-and-paste messenger RNA molecules.
	Telomerase November 2018 Telomerase maintains the ends of our chromosomes.
	Thymine Dimers July 2007 Ultraviolet light damages our DNA, but our cells have ways to correct the damage
	Transfer RNA March 2001 Transfer RNA translates the language of the genome into the language of proteins
	Transfer-Messenger RNA January 2013 tmRNA rescues ribosomes that are stalled by damaged messenger RNA
	Vitamin D Receptor November 2012 Vitamin D helps regulate the use of calcium throughout the body

	Aminopeptidase 1 and Autophagy November 2016 Aminopeptidase 1 is delivered inside the cell using the machinery of autophagy
	Anabolic Steroids August 2007 Anabolic steroids like testosterone are among the most common performance enhancing drugs
	Aquaporin May 2014 Aquaporins create a channel for water molecules to cross through cell membranes
	CFTR and Cystic Fibrosis May 2024 Cystic fibrosis is currently treated using drugs that enhance the function of mutated CFTR
	Clathrin April 2007 Three-armed clathrin triskelions are used to build molecular cages involved in transport
	Erythrocruorin March 2013 Earthworms build a huge version of hemoglobin to carry oxygen
	Ferritin and Transferrin November 2002 Ferritin and transferrin manage our essential stores of iron ions
	Fetal Hemoglobin May 2021 Fetal hemoglobin allows a growing fetus to receive oxygen from their mother.
	Glucose Transporters April 2017 Glucose transporters deliver glucose molecules one-by-one across cell membranes.
	Golgi Casein Kinase January 2022 Casein and many other secreted proteins are phosphorylated by Golgi casein kinase
	Hemoglobin May 2003 Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport
	Importins January 2007 Importins deliver proteins into the nucleus through the nuclear pore complex
	Injectisome June 2024 Salmonella bacteria inject a cocktail of effector proteins into cells to disable their defenses.
	Multidrug Resistance Transporters November 2007 Many bacteria use multidrug resistance transporters to pump drugs and poisons out of the cell
	Nanodiscs and HDL September 2019 Nanodiscs conveniently package a small piece of membrane for experimental studies.
	Nanowires February 2024 Nanowires conduct electrons one at a time inside biological molecules.
	Neurotransmitter Transporters March 2014 Neurotransmitters are transported out of nerve synapses to end a signal transmission
	Nuclear Pore Complex January 2017 The nuclear pore complex is the gateway between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
	P-glycoprotein March 2010 P-glycoprotein pumps toxic molecules out of our cells
	Proton-Gated Urea Channel February 2013 A channel that passes urea allows ulcer-producing bacteria to live in the stomach
	S-Nitrosylated Hemoglobin May 2019 Nitric oxide is attached to a conserved cysteine in hemoglobin and then released to control the flow of blood.
	Serum Albumin January 2003 Serum albumin delivers fatty acid molecules through the bloodstream
	Sodium-Potassium Pump October 2009 Cells continually pump sodium ions out and potassium ions in, powered by ATP